Debate Of Whether Psychology Is A Science

Debate Of Whether Psychology Is A Science Empiricism and Positivism are the two major philosophical influences on psychology; the empiricists brought the concept that all ideas are derived from experience. Experience is the basis of all knowledge. And the positivists further explained that sensory experience which can be shared with others can be objectively studied by observing their overt behavior. Determinism, indeterminism and nondeterminism hold different view on whether psychology is a science. Some aspects of psychology are scientific and some are not. Behaviorist, for example, used scientific method to understand human, while humanists do not used this kind of methodology. It is clearly that psychology is not a pure science instead it scientifically studies the nature of human and animals. Introduction In trying to answer the important and complex question of whether psychology is a science, we will first take a brief look at two major philosophical influences that help to create psychology- Empiricism and Positivism. Then study the view of determinism, indeterminism and nondeterminism of different psychologists to discuss the mind and subject matter of psychology. And finally, try to compare determinism and free will and conclude writers view on this original question Is psychology a science?. Empiricism John Locke, David Hume and David Hartley etc were the British empiricists who stressed that the important of experience in the attainment of knowledge. And the only source of true knowledge about the world is sensory experience which is information that comes to our senses or our inferences between the relationships of sensory facts. The word empirical is often used with the concept of science which implies that science used observation, measurement of the world and collecting data in the environment. This view is contrast with the Rationalists who believed that knowledge is innate and inborn. Locke maintained that the mind at birth was purely nothing, but experiences color it. This idea built into the behaviorist view of learning, like children can be made into anything that environment want it to be. The implication of empiricism on psychology include, firstly, the idea of conscious mind into simple ideas or overt behavior into stimuli response behavior and secondly, provided us the theory of association for explaining how simple elements can be combined to form complex elements or compounds. Thus the empiricist provided for psychology both a theory and methodology that most behaviorists made used of and is still influence todays psychology. Positivism Comte, the positivist, claimed that the only things we can be sure of is thing that can publicly observable. That is, sense experience that can be shared with other people. The data of science is observable and therefore can be trusted and only scientific information can be considered valid. Anything that is not publicly observable is suspect and is rejected because it is not a proper object to study. He did not believe psychology could not become a science because the only way to study the mind is using unreliable method of introspection. To study individual, it can be objectively studied by observing their overt behavior or through phrenological analysis. There are two significant impact of positivism on psychology: firstly, Darwins evolution theory enabled psychology to be placed in field of biological science. Secondly, psychology can be treated experimentally under Wundts psychology laboratory. Determinism All determinists believe that all behavior is caused and there are three kinds of determinism: the first one is biological determinism which emphasizes that behavior can be caused by physiological conditions or genetic predisposition, for example, mental illness was caused because of the lack of neurotransmitter, dopamine, in the brain. And that people will suffer abnormal behavior. Most human behavior is genetically inherited. The second one is environmental determinism, stressed that the environmental stimulus as the determinants of human behavior. For example, behavior theory emphasizes that environmental stimulus determine our behavior. The third determinism is sociocultural determinism, it is a form of environmental determinism, but emphasizes on the cultural factors like rules, regulations and beliefs that govern human behavior. For example, everyone keep quite in the library automatically because the social norm of our culture is no talking in the library. So, the environment factor guides our behaviors. Freud and Skinner, who are both determinists, agreed with the view that human behavior is caused. The neo-behaviorist B. F. Skinner held the view that the person is not free. In his book Beyond freedom and Dignity (1971), he argues that behavioral freedom is an illusion. His famous concept of operant conditioning, suggested that when negative reinforcers are consider along with rewards, then almost all behavior is controlled by association of reinforcement which occur constantly in the environment. What we think that we are behaving freely is not accurate because we are merely free of negative reinforcement or its threat; our behavior is still determined by the pursuit of things that have been positively reinforcing in the past, and consists of responses that have previously been positively reinforced. When we perceive others as behaving freely we are merely unaware of their reinforcement histories and the association that govern their behavior. So, Skinner concluded that behavioral freedom is an illusion. Other determinist, Freud, also rejects the possibility of free will. Every cause of humans behavior comes from within the individuals own unconscious mind; for Skinners view, they are external. However, from the view of inductive nature of science, it is clear that total predictability is impossible. The past does not logically predict the future, if it is true for physics, does it still true for human behavior? And how much more true it is? So if the main requirement of determinism is that behavior should be completely predictable, it does not seem to bring the same reason to the free will view after all. Indeterminism Some psychologists believe that human behavior is determined but since the universe is complex, we cannot accurately measure all the cause of our behavior. As Heisnberg said, despite human behavior is determined, we cannot know at least some of causes of behavior because we change that behavior when we are attempting to observe them. Psychologists who accepted this view believing that there are some specific causes of behavior but that we cannot accurately known. For example, when studying humans thought and behavior, just like social psychologists does in their experiment; one dependent variable can be caused by many independent variables. The problem of youngsters drug abuse can be caused by peer influence, family problem, personal attitudes or others factors. The drug abuse behavior is determined, but we cannot accurately measure or discover all the causes. Determinism versus Nondeterminism (Free will) Our everyday common sense understanding is that people have the ability to choose their own course of action, to determine their lives and, to this extent, have free will. Free will could be exercised within physical, political, environmental and other sociological factors. Sometimes, when we think about the concept of free will, it is also linked to the concept of responsibility; we normally think that people are responsible for what they do since they are the cause of what they do, that is they are not driven by any outsides factors. Most humanists or existentialists, like Carl Rogers, Rollo May and George Kelly etc assume that human behaviors are freely chosen and therefore cannot be tested by scientific method. This belief in free will is contrary to the view of determinism. Therefore, these psychologists are considered nonscientific. These psychologists are strongly influenced by the concept that our nature of experience and our knowledge of the external world are determined on how we interpret and define it. The universe is occupied only by the minds, and physical objects depend on and exist in individuals mind. But the view of positivism in the nature of scientific psychology is different. They imply that behavior is determined by external events or stimuli and that people response to it passively and, to this extent, are not free. Determinism also implies that behavior is totally predictable, as they occur in a regular, orderly manner. And every human action has a cause. An important distinction can be made between compulsion on the one hand and determinism on the other hand. Free actions are free from compulsion, but this is consistent with them being determined. The view which William James proposed called soft determinism. He argued that the question of free action is depending on the type of cause our behavior has. If our actions have as their proximate cause something like conscious mind, we can see them as free, rational, voluntary, purposive actions. Is psychology a science? Is psychology science? Some aspects of psychology are scientific and some are not. The psychologist used scientific method have provided very much useful information in every major area of psychology, for example, memory, personality, learning, perception, intelligence, motivation and psychotherapy. Structuralism, behaviorism and cognitive psychology used scientific method to study the nature of human being. In structuralism, psychologists try to identify the elements of the humans conscious thoughts and feelings. Then, its work is replaced by behaviorism which its emphasis on the objective observation of the behaviors of adults, children and animals. While cognitive psychologists recognize that cognitive process can be inferred from observable behavior and be studied under experimental setting. And these three aspects have a clear definition of subject-matter, a fundamental assumption of learning, it allows prediction and control and it is a methodology, with the controlled experiment. Psychology cannot be concluded as a totally science, some even said that psychology is rather a pseudo-science or it is still in a pre-scientific stage. Since some aspects of psychology, for example the subjective mind cannot be tested scientifically as it can change from time to time. When answering the question Is psychology a science? It can be concluded that psychology is not a normal science. Whether or not we consider psychology as a science depend on which aspect of psychology we are focusing on. Clearly that not all psychologists are methodological, for example, psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists. If we change the question to Is psychology science? It is surely answered that psychology is scientific. Conclusion

Blanche’s Madness Essay

Blanche DuBois in Tennesse William’s A Streetcar Named Desire suffers from living in a culture dominated by men, the human condition of desire and the insecurity and madness that follow; sexuality and her self-pressure to maintain self worth are the source of her cast off from society. The madness is launched when she loses her money, family, husband, job, and continues to lose her youthful appearance. Blanche’s insanity can be deemed acceptable from the surface because of her losses, but the way in which Blanche handles her situation oozes insecurity and hints that the loss of sanity is inevitable in Blanche; her insecurity stems from her dependence on men and hergluttony to fulfill her whims which escalates to society’s lack of acceptance. A true sign of extreme insecurity in Blanche is her creation of a false, dignified persona based on lies. She builds herself a world of fantasy to escape from the troubles that surround her. A symbol of this in the play is the paper lantern Blanche places over the â€Å"bare lightbulb† (Willaims 42). She tells Stanley â€Å"It’s only a paper moon, just as phony as it can be – but it wouldn’t be make-believe if you believed in me! † (Williams 100). The light bulb of the lamp signifies Blanche’s inner essence and the â€Å"paper moon† is the artificial personality she lays on top of herself. This is mainly in attempts to receive compliments and thus assurance of self from the men around her. She goes so far as to admit she was â€Å"fishing for a compliment† (Williams 89) from Stanley. Blanche’s total inability to reassure herself is a piece in the puzzle of her impending madness, and a sign of the male dominated and run society of the 1950’s. The human condition involves attachment and therefore desire; this is a major factor in Blanche’s regression process that she cannot control. Both Stella and Blanche desire freedom, beauty, love and most of all, sex. To satisfy her desire Blanche puts forth her sexuality. As her regression thickens she festers and does not know â€Å"how much longer [she] can turn the trick† (Williams 79) a fact that propels her insanity. Blanche’s encroaching on the young man and exclaiming â€Å"it would be nice to keep you, but I’ve got to be good—and keep my hands of children† (Williams 84) is one of the ignals of her desire to remain young and relive her teenage bliss, which also propels her downfall. Blanche pines for an escape from the financial and personal woes she has created for herself; the only road she sees to escape is with a man. Blanche uses her sexuality to reassure herself and head for an escape. This is another example of Blanche’s inability to care for herself and to become accepting of her situation without a man in the picture. She says â€Å"I want to deceive him enough to make him—want me†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Williams 81). This statement from Blanche provides insight on her insecurity and dependence on a man to rescue her. William’s uses a dash and an ellipsis in her statement to create the uncertainty of her speech. Mitch and Blanche are not compatible but Blanch desperately seeks an escape from the difficult circumstances of her life. Even when Blanche is being taken away she refuses to listen to the Matron but says to the male doctor â€Å"I have always depended on the kindness of strangers† (Williams 142). Blanche’s final vision consists of a male taking her to safety—or rescuing her, because she cannot rescue herself. This could be seen as rational, however, because the doctor is a licensed professional and Blanche has suffered through a difficult time. Blanche is in fact shrouded with insecurity and immaturity, but through her the loss of her plantation and job this could be deemed reasonable. She has nothing left in the world, and due to the time period the only way out she sees is with men. While she is floundering between her losses she turns to her sexual desires to keep herself afloat. Blanche could have handled her situation with more grace, but her madness could be seen as reasonable on the surface.

Environmental Education and Education for Sustainability Essay

QUESTION 1 What international events influenced the development of Environmental Education and Education for Sustainability? List the key developments and events in a short 1-page point-form account providing the relevant names of events and dates/ years in which they took place 1) The 1972 United Nations Conference on Human Environment – Stockholm It led directly to the establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), which became the first UN agency to have its headquarters located outside of Europe and North America – in Nairobi in Kenya, East Africa. Among the first tasks given to the UNEP was to establish term ‘environmental education’. Together with Unesco, UNEP organised the first International Workshop on Environmental Education in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, in 1975 and following on this, the first Inter-governmental Conference on Environmental Education held at Tbilisi in the USSR in 1977. This conference resulted in the declaration of 12 principals – now referred to as the Tbilisi Principals of Environmental Education which provided the framework and guidelines for the practise of environmental education on a global, regional, and national scale. The 1987 International Conference on Environmental Education held in Moscow reaffirmed the Tbilisi Principals as sound guidelines for t he development of national environment al education programmes. 2) The Tbilisi Principles of Environmental Education Consider the environment in its totality – natural and built, technological and social (economic, political, cultural-historical, moral, aesthetic) Be a continuous lifelong process, beginning at the preschool level and continuing through all formal and non-formal stages Be interdisciplinary in its approach, drawing on the specific content of each discipline in making possible a holistic and balanced perspective Examine major environmental issues from local, national, regional, and international points of view so that students receive insights into environmental conditions in other geographical areas Focus on current and potential environmental situations while taking into account the historical perspective Promote value of, and necessity for local, national, and international cooperation in the prevention and solution of environmental problems Explicitly consider environmental aspects in plans for the development and growth Enable  learners to have a role in planning their learning experiences and provide an opportunity for making decisions and accepting their consequences Enable learners to have a role in planning their learning experiences and provide an opportunity for making decisions and accepting their consequences Relate environmental sensitivity, knowledge. Problem-solving skills and values clarification to every age, but with special emphasis on environmental sensitivity to the learner’s own community in early years Help learners discover the symptoms and real causes of environmental problems Emphasise the complexity of environmental problems and thus the need to develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills Utilise diverse learning environments and a broad array of educational approaches to teaching/ learning about and from the environment, with due stress on practical activities and first-hand experience 3) The 1992 Rio Earth Summit The 1992 Earth Summit focused on the role of environmental education as an educational response to the environmental crisis. Chapter 36 of Agenda 21 (UNCED, 1992), was one of the key documents to emerge from the conference , emphasises the need for wide-scale environmental educational programmes in diverse settings, while the â€Å"BioDiversity Convention† includes education and capacity building , as do many of the other international conventions aimed at responding to a wide range of environmental issues Agenda 21 describes environmental education processes that involve teachers and learners in â€Å"promoting sustainable development and improving the capacity of people to address environment and development issues† illustrating the close link between changes in the field of environmental education and the prominence of the notion of sustainable development at the Rio Earth Summit. A development linked to the 1992 Earth Summit was the development of a Treaty on Environmental Education for Sustainable Societies, which was adopted at a plenary meeting by the International Forum of NGOs and Social Movements 4) The NGO Forum Principals Education is the right of all; we are all learners and educators Environmental education, whether formal, non-formal or informal, should grounded in critical and innovative thinking in any place or time, promoting the transformation and construction of society Environment education is both  individual and collective. It aims to develop local and global citizenship with respect for self-determination and the sovereignty of nations Environmental education is not neutral but it value-based. It is an act for social transformation Environmental education must involve a holistic approach and thus an interdisciplinary focus in the relation between human beings, nature and the universe Environmental education must stimulate solidarity, equality, and respect for the human rights involving democratic strategies and an open climate of cultural interchange Environmental education should treat critical global issues, their causes and interrelationship in a systematic approach and within their social and historical contexts. Environmental education must recover, recognise, respect, reflect and utilise indigenous history and local cultures, as well as promote cultural, linguistic and ecological diversity. Environmental education must facilitate equal partnerships in the processes decision making at all levels and stages Environmental education should empower all peoples and promote opportunity for grassroots democratic change and participation. Environmental education values all different forms of knowledge. Knowledge is diverse, cumulative and socially produced and should not be patented or monopolised Environmental education must be designed to enable people to handle conflicts in just and humane ways Environmental education must stimulate dialogue and cooperation among individuals and institutions in order to create new lifestyles which are based on meeting everyone’s basic needs, regardless of ethnic gender, age, religious, class, physical or mental differences Environmental education requires a democratisation of the mass media and its commitment to the interest of all sectors of society. Environmental education must integrate knowledge, skills, values, attitudes and actions Education must help develop and ethical awareness of all forms of life with humans share this planet, respect all life cycles, and impose limits on human’s exploitation of other forms of life. QUESTION 2 The IUCN defines environmental education as follows: Environmental education is a process during which values are discovered and concepts are explained in order to develop skills and attitudes pertaining  to an appreciation of the relationship between man, his culture and his biophysical environment. Environment education also includes the practise of decision-making and the formulation of personal code of conduct on matters affecting the quality of the environment. In a school context, you observe the following: Paper and litter is strewn over the whole school and the school grounds are unkempt Lights are left on in classrooms and offices after school is over Taps are usually left dripping  As an environmental educator you realise that this an opportunity to educate the learners and the staff at your school about the environment issues observed and to help them take action to respond to these issues. Briefly explain: 3) What values you can teach the school in relation to the observed environmental issues? The importance of a clean environment is a healthy environment. We can teach children the importance of recycling. 4) What skills need to be developed to address the problems? We need to educate learners the threats that litter causes to the environment e.g. litter can be a fire hazard; it could harm or kill animals, can block waterways, litter looks bad and is an eyesore for anybody. 5) What attitudes need to be developed in the school? Learners and children need to develop a positive attitude, to involve the entire school in a recycling programme, which can be extended to the community. 6) What decisions need to be made by the school management to address these issues? Create awareness by providing recycling bins for paper, glass and plastic. Pick an area on a weekly basis and involve the learners and parents to participate in cleaning up the area. Have awareness meetings with the learners, have charts in the classrooms, go on field trips. 7) What code of conduct needs to be developed for learners in the school to address these issues? The rules of the school have to be strict, children are to receive detention if they are caught littering. QUESTION 3 Education for sustainability and education for sustainable development are very prominent in this decade for sustainable development. Answer the  following questions regarding this: 3.1 Define the term sustainable development Sustainable development means ensuring the dignified living conditions with regard to human rights by creating and maintaining the widest possible range of options for freely defining life plans 3.2 Name two ecological indicators of sustainability Consumption and generation of waste are minimised Renewable, non-toxic energy sources are used and/ or disposed of to the benefit of the environment and community 3.3 Name two social indicators of sustainability There are adequate opportunities/ technologies for communication within the community and for connecting, as is appropriate, with the worldwide community The talents, skills and other resources of the community are shared freely within the community, and offered outside the community, to serve the greater good 3.4 Name two spiritual indicators of sustainability Cultural vitality is sustained through artistic and other cultural activities and celebrations There is a capacity for flexibility and successful responsiveness to difficulties that arise QUESTION 4 Discuss how you can apply five (5) Tbilisi principals of Environmental Education in teaching an environment education topic of your choice Assessment guide: Your chosen topic has to be an environmental issue that environmental education will be responding to. You need to list the 5 principals and for each principle explain how you will fully incorporate it into the chosen topic. Use the framework below for your answer: Environmental Topic: Tbilisi Principle Application of the principle to the topic 1.consider the environment in its totality Learners are to respect the environment 2.focus on current & potential environment situations Think on the current problems and the problems that can arise in the future if not dealt with now 3.help learners discover the symptoms & real causes of environmental problems Educate learners on how these problems are caused and how to detect them early on 4.emphasis the complexity of environmental problems and the need to develop critical thinking and problem solving Discuss with learners the hazards of environmental problems and ways to prevent them 5.enable learners to have a role in planning their learning experiences Group studies, sharing and brainstorming QUESTION 5 Discuss learning in environmental education under the following headings 5.1 environmental learning strategies or approaches Active Learning Learners should not only learn about the environment, but should also be active participants in the learning situation in environment education Authentic Learning Learning about real environmental threats and problems, and looking for real solutions to these challenges. It also implies active, hands-on learning Problem Solving With the correct guidance and support, learners will make a genuine effort to solve problems if they are real and especially if adults have been unable to find a solution. Critical Thinking Many outcomes for environmental learning include the phrase: â€Å"Learners should critically engage with†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This implies a higher dimension of thought and requires learners to acquire a lot of information on different perspectives associated with an environmental problem, issue or risk if their critical engagement is to be meaningful. 5.2 principles for environmental learning To ensure a holistic approach to learning in environmental education, the following principals should be taken into account Environmental learning is based on knowledge, which is needed to study and solve environmental problems and to address environmental challenges Environmental learning should develop the skills needed to study and solve environmental problems and to address environmental challenges Environmental learning should include the affective domain, specifically the attitudes, values and  commitments needed to ensure a sustainable society 5.3 learners Age Environmental learning should be age appropriate for it to succeed. Learners in different age groups have different learning abilities and exhibit different characteristics Auditory Learners Auditory learners prefer to learn through listening. Typical auditory learning activities in environmental education are listening to verbal presentations on environmental topics and discussions on environmental issues Visual Learners Visual learners prefer learning through seeing. The more visual the presentation, the better it is. In a formal learning situation, visual learners need to see the environmental educators body language and facial expressions to fully understand the content of a presentation Tactile/ kinaesthetic learners Tactile learners prefer learning through touching, moving, and doing. Outdoor learning suits them well, as they prefer a hands-on approach, actively exploring the physical world around them 5.4 inclusive learning in environmental education Inclusive environmental education means More students with barriers to learning in regular environments, more of the time, in more meaningful activities Having additional learning options for meeting the variety of needs of individual learners Mainstreaming learners and offering support, resources and help where needed 5.5 The learning environment in environmental education A learning should be functional and should correspond as closely as possible to the situations in which learning is to applied A learning environment should encourage activity and should engage learners in an interactive and integrated way A learning environment should be lifelike, or at least relate to reality, to ensure that learners can experience what the learning can be used for. A learning environment should contain models, and coaching  should be provided by an expert teacher QUESTION 6 The purpose of this question is to help you master the skill of preparing a lesson for your subject in which you integrate Environmental Education Design a lesson where you indicate how an environmental theme can be taught in your subject. The following should receive attention: Indicate the environmental topic (e.g. pollution, global warming, acid mine water, desertification, deforestation, overuse of resources such as fishing, etc.) Indicate the lesson aims (identify the relevant environmental skills, knowledge, attitudes, and values to be addressed by the lesson) Indicate the environmental content you will use to present the lesson Include learning activities for introduction, middle, and conclusion of lesson Include teacher activities for introduction, middle, and conclusion of lesson Integrate at least two Tbilisi principles in your lesson (how can two Tbilisi principles are used in the school context). Indicate the values you would like learners to accept (e.g. care for the environment, action on behalf of the environment, etc.) Indicate the environmental concepts you would like learners to understand and indicate how you will go about teaching the concepts (e.g. biodiversity, environment, etc.). Indicate the skills learners should master (e.g. Learners must be able to make compost or start a food garden or recycle paper, etc.). Reflect on how successful you were in integrating Environmental education in your lesson.

Definitions and Examples of Swear Words

A swear word is a word or phrase thats generally considered blasphemous, obscene, vulgar, or otherwise offensive. Also known as  swearing, bad word, obscene word, dirty word, and four-letter word. Swear words serve many different functions in different social contexts, notes Janet Holmes. They may express annoyance, aggression and insult, for instance, or they may express solidarity and friendliness (An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 2013). EtymologyFrom Old English, take an oath Examples and Observations Spock: Your use of language has altered since our arrival. It is currently laced with, shall we say, more colorful metaphors, double dumbass on you and so forth.Captain Kirk: Oh, you mean the profanity?Spock: Yes.Captain Kirk: Well, thats simply the way they talk here. Nobody pays any attention to you unless you swear every other word. Youll find it in all the literature of the period.(Leonard Nimoy and William Shatner in Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home, 1986)Uses of Swear WordsA final puzzle about swearing is the crazy range of circumstances in which we do it. There is cathartic swearing, as when we hit our thumb with a hammer or knock over a glass of beer. There are imprecations, as when we suggest a label or offer advice to someone who has cut us off in traffic. There are vulgar terms for everyday things and activities, as when Bess Truman was asked to get the president to say fertilizer instead of manure and she replied, You have no idea how long it took me to get him to say manure . There are figures of speech that put obscene words to other uses, such as the barnyard epithet for insincerity, the army acronym snafu, and the gynecological-flagellative term for uxorial dominance. And then there are the adjective-like expletives that salt the speech and split the words of soldiers, teenagers, Australians, and others affecting a breezy speech style.(Steven Pinker, The Stuff of Thought: Language as a Window Into Human Nature. Viking, 2007)Social SwearingWhy do we swear? The answer to this question depends on the approach you take. As a linguist--not a psychologist, neurologist, speech pathologist or any other -ist--I see swearing as meaningfully patterned verbal behaviour that readily lends itself to a functional analysis. Pragmatically, swearing can be understood in terms of the meanings it is taken to have and what it achieves in any particular circumstance. . . .Typically, a social swear word originates as one of the bad words but becomes conventionalised in a recognisably social form. Using swear words as loose intensifiers contributes to the easy-going, imprecise nature of informal talk among in-group members. . . . In sum, this is jokey, cruisy, relaxing talk in which participants oil the wheels of their connection as much by how they talk as what they talk about.(Ruth Wajnryb, Language Most Foul. Allen Unwin, 2005)Secular Swearing[I]t would appear that in Western society the major shifts in the focus of swearing have been from religious matters (more especially the breaching of the commandment against taking the Lords name in vain) to sexual and bodily functions, and from opprobrious insults, such as coolie and kike. Both of these trends reflect the increasing secularization of Western society.(Geoffrey Hughes, Swearing: A Social History of Foul Language, Oaths and Profanity in English. Blackwell, 1991)George Carlin on Bad WordsThere are four hundred thousand words in the English language and there are seven of them you cant say on t elevision. What a ratio that is! Three hundred ninety three thousand nine hundred and ninety three . . . to seven! They must really be bad. Theyd have to be outrageous to be separated from a group that large. All of you over here . . . You seven, you bad words.Thats what they told us, you remember? Thats a bad word. What? There are no bad words. Bad thoughts, bad intentions, but no bad words.(George Carlin with Tony Hendra, Last Words. Simon Schuster, 2009)David Camerons Jokey, Blokey InterviewDavid Camerons jokey, blokey interview . . . on Absolute Radio this morning is a good example of what can happen when politicians attempt to be down with the kids--or in this case, with the thirtysomethings. . . .Asked why he didnt use the social networking website Twitter, the Tory leader said: The trouble with Twitter, the instantness of it--too many twits might make a twat. . . .[T]he Tory leaders aides were in defensive mode afterwards, pointing out that twat was not a swear word under ra dio guidelines.(Haroon Siddique, Sweary Cameron Illustrates Dangers of Informal Interview. The Guardian, July 29, 2009)S***r W***s[N]ever use asterisks, or such silliness as b-----, which are just a cop out, as Charlotte Brontà « recognised: The practice of hinting by single letters those expletives with which profane and violent people are wont to garnish their discourse, strikes me as a proceeding which, however well meant, is weak and futile. I cannot tell what good it does--what feeling it spares--what horror it conceals.(David Marsh and Amelia Hodsdon, Guardian Style, 3rd ed. Guardian Books, 2010)Supreme Court Rulings on Swear WordsThe Supreme Court’s last major case concerning broadcast indecency, F.C.C. v. Pacifica Foundation in 1978, upheld the commission’s determination that George Carlin’s classic seven dirty words monologue, with its deliberate, repetitive and creative use of vulgarities, was indecent. But the court left open the question of whether the use of an occasional expletive could be punished.The case decided Tuesday, Federal Communications Commission v. Fox Television Stations, No. 07-582, arose from two appearances by celebrities on the Billboard Music Awards.Justice Scalia read the passages at issue from the bench, though he substituted suggestive shorthand for the dirty words.The first involved Cher, who reflected on her career in accepting an award in 2002: I’ve also had critics for the last 40 years saying I was on my way out every year. Right. So F-em. (In his opinion, Justice Scalia explained that Cher metaphorically suggested a sexual act as a means of expressing hostility to her critics.)The second passage came in an exchange between Paris Hilton and Nicole Richie in 2003 in which Ms. Richie discussed in vulgar terms the difficulties in cleaning cow manure off a Prada purse.Reversing its policy on such fleeting expletives, the commission said in 2006 that both broadcasts were indecent. It did not matte r, the commission said, that some of the offensive words did not refer directly to sexual or excretory functions. Nor did it matter that the cursing was isolated and apparently impromptu. . . .In reversing that decision, Justice Scalia said the change in policy was rational and therefore permissible. It was certainly reasonable, he wrote, to determine that it made no sense to distinguish between literal and nonliteral uses of offensive words, requiring repetitive use to render only the latter indecent.Justice John Paul Stevens, dissenting, wrote that not every use of a swear word connoted the same thing. As any golfer who has watched his partner shank a short approach knows, Justice Stevens wrote, it would be absurd to accept the suggestion that the resultant four-letter word uttered on the golf course describes sex or excrement and is therefore indecent.It is ironic, to say the least, Justice Stevens went on, that while the F.C.C. patrols the airwaves for words that have a tenuous relationship with sex or excrement, commercials broadcast during prime-time hours frequently ask viewers whether they are battling erectile dysfunction or are having trouble going to the bathroom.(Adam Liptak, Supreme Court Upholds F.C.C.’s Shift to a Harder Line on Indecency on the Air. The New York Times, April 28, 2009)The Lighter Side of Swear WordsTell me, son, the anxious mother said, what did your father say when you told him youd wrecked his new Corvette?Shall I leave out the swear words? the son asked.Of course.He didnt say anything.(Steve Allen, Steve Allens Private Joke File. Three Rivers Press, 2000) Alternate Spellings: swearword, swear-word